Historical and Comparative Perspective of Set & Setting: the case of opium in the Early Modern period

Abstract

This article explores the historical and comparative dimensions of the "Set and Setting" model by examining the case of opium use during the Early Modern period. Introduced in the 1960s, the Set and Setting model posits that drug effects are shaped not only by their pharmacological properties but also by the user’s mindset and socio-environmental context. While modern research has embraced this concept to analyze psychedelics and other substances, this study applies it to historical contexts to shed light on variations in drug use and effects across cultures. The article focuses on opium, a psychoactive substance with profound medical and cultural significance, and investigates its dual perception as a medicine and intoxicant. By analyzing accounts from Early Modern physicians and travelers, the study highlights how cultural narratives, environmental factors, and individual dispositions influenced interpretations of opium’s effects, particularly its supposed role as a “war drug” for Middle Eastern populations. The article also traces the evolving understanding of addiction and tolerance, emphasizing the early recognition of non-pharmacological factors in shaping drug experiences. Drawing parallels to contemporary issues such as the opioid crisis, the article underscores the enduring relevance of the Set and Setting framework in understanding the socio-cultural and psychological dimensions of substance use. By integrating historical perspectives with modern insights, the study advocates for a nuanced approach to drug policy, harm reduction, and the regulation of psychoactive substances.